Cosmic Conquerors: How the Ottomans Used Astrology to Topple Constantinople

I. Introduction

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 was a significant event in history, and the factors that led to its conquest have been debated for centuries. One of the less-discussed factors was the role of astrology in the Ottoman Empire, specifically in the planning and execution of the siege of Constantinople. This essay explores the astrological practices of the Ottomans and their potential influence on the fall of Constantinople.  The military achievements alone were beyond imagination, but possibly the most unbelievable factor in Mehmet’s victory was his court astrologers, who likely played the most crucial role in the most critical moment of the entire battle and directly led to the rapid rise of a global power.

As shown on the excellent Netflix series, it is believed by some that the lunar eclipse of 22 May 1453 played an important role as an omen of the city’s inevitable demise. While the importance of the eclipse is dismissed by many today, what is indisputable is that one week later, the impossible had happened. The legendary walls of the city were destroyed in 53 days, hordes of Ottoman troops filled the city and the last Emperor of Rome, Constantine XI, was dead. A 21-year-old Sultan from an insignificant Turkish kingdom sat on his throne.

How did Mehmet achieve his seemingly impossible victory? I intend to show that the lunar eclipse was not simply a coincidence that Mehmet exploited to boost his troops’ morale or a minor part of his plan. It was likely the primary factor that drove his campaign strategy from beginning to end, carefully planned ahead of time for probably decades. I will detail the events of the siege and then examine the significance of the eclipse using the astrological practices of the time, which are significantly different than what is popularly known today. When all of the events are put into perspective, the only conclusion is that he based his key decisions on it and succeeded.

Part II will describe the situation from a military perspective and Part III will illustrate the choices and consequences that Mehmet faced. Part IV introduces Mehmet’s known history of consulting astrologers. Part V delves into some of the specific astrological practices of the time and examines the specific information that Mehmet would likely have been given by his astrologers, as well as the real-world results that ocurred. Part VI concludes the essay by summarizing the role of astrology in the fall of Constantinople. Appendix 1 and 2 provides in-depth astrological analysis but is not necessary for the casual reader. I did not meticulously cite sources for most of the military information as it is well documented and the focus of this is astrology. However, the primary sources for my military history is listed at the end under “Further Reading”.

The Ottomans relied on astrology to guide their actions, and it played a significant role in their victory. While astrology was just one factor among many that contributed to the Ottomans’ success, it cannot be ignored as a very important influence. The fall of Constantinople was a complex event with many contributing factors, but the role of astrology in the Ottoman Empire’s strategy is an intriguing and often overlooked aspect of this historical event.

II.  Military Situation

Above: Illustrations of Theodosian Walls in 16th Century (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

In the figures above, the immense walls are depicted to demonstrate their complexity. The city was surrounded by fourteen miles of these walls, the towers firing arrows, cannons, and Greek fire at invaders.

The most important thing for the reader to keep in mind is that in 1453, Constantinople was still indestructible. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) was at its weakest both in territory and military force. However, the ancient city still stood because of the indestructible megalithic defense walls that to this day remains one of the most complex defense systems ever built, surpassing the Great Wall of China in most ways. The city’s narrow Golden Horn harbor was similarly impenetrable from an enormous, unbreakable chain defense across it, making invasion by sea impossible.

The unique surrounding terrain gave invaders numerous and deadly disadvantages.  It had been besieged 22 times in in the previous 1,000 years by the most feared conquerors in history, among them Attila the Hun, the Slavs, Bulgars, Arabs and Persians, and repelled them all. During the disastrous Fourth Crusade two centuries earlier, the city was sacked via the harbor while suffering from exceptionally poor leadership and the Christian invaders were assisted from the inside by disaffected Byzantine nobility. Otherwise, the city had a flawless record of defense and the wall remained invincible since ancient times.

The technology of the time was overall primitive to the modern person. Military hardware had scarcely changed from the height of the Roman Empire, with siege catapults being commonly used for heavy artillery and longbows used for long-range attacks. Horse-mounted cavalry was the heavy mobile infantry, their troops wore metal armor, and generally fought with lances for long range stabbing and swords for close range. The average infantryman had a simple sword, shield, metal helmet and a tunic made mostly of non-metallic materials to allow for quicker movement on foot.

Horses were vital, both for transporting supplies and at times functioning as armored vehicles, covered in metal armor themselves. Naval forces were made up of wooden ships, anywhere from 100-300 feet long, powered mostly by sails and armed with varying amounts of cannons of different sizes. They were used for blockading ports as well as transporting ground troops or attacking the well defended walls of a port city. Siege warfare continued to be widespread and sieges lasting for years were still commonplace.

The use of gunpowder, while largely a novelty with a few specialized uses for centuries, had finally begun to change the face of warfare. Cannons of all sizes were available, each with its own unique advantages. Crude, single shot firearms were now in close range combat. It was gunpowder, particularly the cannon, that proved the crucial weapon for Mehmet.

Today, some may be prone to think of the battle as a foregone conclusion and that the evolution of technology made the Ottoman victory inevitable. While that has been disproven, especially over the previous century with guerrilla warfare often prevailing against far superior forces, in 1453 the Ottomans held tremendous advantages by any metric. Their incredible achievements should have won the siege much quicker.

Giving the battles the attention deserved would take volumes. It is sufficient to state that everything that could go wrong for the Ottomans did go disastrously wrong until shortly after a lunar eclipse occurred, of which Mehmet’s astrologers convinced him would bring victory. The point I want to illustrate is that there were no other reasons for Mehmet to expect victory.

I will summarize the key points of the siege and follow up with their results at the time of the eclipse.

⦁ Numbers: Mehmet had a numerical advantage of over 10 to 1, possibly as much as 20 to 1. The total number of Byzantine defenders, including mercenaries and volunteers, were around 7,000. The Ottoman Janissaries alone numbered 12,000 to 15,000, then considered among the most elite soldiers in the world.

⦁ Superweapons: Gunpowder was a relatively new element of warfare, and the Ottomans had an unprecedented advantage. 14 batteries of over 70 enormous cannons, including the “Basilica”, that today remains one of the largest cannons in the world. He had virtually unlimited supplies of gunpowder and ammunition. The defenders had at most 20 working cannons and vastly inferior to Mehmet’s.

⦁ Siege Towers: Mehmet had at least a dozen advanced mobile siege towers that were heavily armed with cannons and archers as well as protective armor.

⦁ Navy: A navy of 320 vessels with over 100 advanced warships. The total naval forces defending Constantinople was approximately two dozen, at most 40.

⦁ Mehmet had the coastal castle of Rumeli Hisari close by to further isolate the Byzantines by sea blockade.

⦁ Surprise by Sea: Only 16 days into the siege, Mehmet’s troops bypassed the unbreakable Chains of the Golden Horn by secretly building a wooden path across land, behind the city, and inserted over 70 vessels into the city harbor.

⦁ Secret Weapons: Mehmet had miners secretly dig at least three tunnels underground to place heavy explosives under strategic areas of the wall, intending to detonate them in a surprise attack.

After six weeks of fighting, Mehmet was faring poorly, especially considering his overwhelming advantages against the ancient and undefeated wall with the determined defenders inside.

Ottoman troops’ morale was very low, and casualties were devastating.  The infantry suffered heavy losses every day with no significant gains made. Some estimates put the casualties as high as 18,000 on the first day.

Their doomsday weapons of artillery, and the unthinkably large Basilica cannon, had failed to crush the wall as promised by its engineer, as well as the dozens of other powerful cannons. Byzantine defenders were largely able to repair the walls between barrages.

The advanced siege towers were seemingly ineffective against the determined Byzantine defenders. As many as seven towers were destroyed, at least one was completely burned down with Greek fire (an ancient version of napalm).

The unprecedented naval insertion by land into the Golden Horn allowed ships to freely fire on the city at close range, but they were unable to break the defensive chain, making them trapped inside the harbor. Although sources vary as to the number of naval casualties, the Ottoman flagship was their most powerful vessel and critical to the strategy. It was sunk by cannons only two weeks into the siege. A large attack on the wall by ships was also repelled with Greek fire.

The secret underground tunnels were compromised just as they neared the crucial time. Only days before the eclipse, intelligence networks discovered the first tunnel and destroyed it. One was destroyed from heavy rain. Deducing more, the defenders quickly set out to destroy the rest, capturing officers and gaining the other locations through torture.

Mehmet also faced the looming risk of Christian European powers rallying to the defense of Constantinople if the siege became a prolonged stalemate. The opportunity to quickly quash a new Muslim power on their doorstep would have been enticing if it appeared feasible.

The Byzantines has proven that they were full of vicious surprises. Even if Mehmet’s troops managed to successfully breach the wall and get inside the city, there was no certainty that the Byzantines would not have gruesome surprises waiting for them and slaughter all of them. Over 5,000 artillery rounds had been fired, over 55,000 pounds of gunpowder expended, their flagship sunk and the wall remained intact. Mehmet’s only tangible gains were massive casualties.

This was the situation in the days just before the lunar eclipse. Luck was not on Mehmet’s side by any estimate, except by his court astrologers.

III. Mehmet’s Choices

All of this is mentioned in order to provide the reader some context for Mehmet’s next decision. Despite his overwhelming advantage, everything that could go wrong had went disastrously wrong. The small number of Byzantine defenders had already inflicted a disproportionately severe number of casualties on Mehmet’s vastly superior military. If the pattern continued, he would have no military left. And possibly no throne or even a kingdom.

If he gambled everything and failed to take the city, as happened to all who had tried before him, he would likely lose everything.

He could leave the city having gained a significantly larger tribute from Constantine, as many in his inner circle were urging him to do. Not a total victory, but a win nonetheless, and a safe option.

Or he could gamble everything, in large part on astrologers’ advice, to achieve what no other before him had done.

Mehmet chose the third option. He succeeded and took his place in history among the great conquerors. He succeeded despite everything going wrong at the worst times until his luck changed at the very end.

Above: The situation and position of forces the week of the eclipse. (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

IV. Astrological Strategy

From a military standpoint, Mehmet’s decision was highly irrational. Mehmet is widely remembered as a man of impressive intellect and anything but credulous. Many of his most experienced advisors and commanders urged him to accept sizeable tribute and fight again another day. Some young and ambitious men in his circle told him what he wanted to hear and urged him to take the city as nobody else in history had done.

Mehmet’s court astrologers assured him from before the campaign began that he would win. He relied heavily on the advice of his astrologers. In fact, they selected auspicious dates for the launch of the siege (1)(2). Sources widely agree that the lunar eclipse was of immense importance in Mehmet’s historic decision. The exact conditions of this eclipse will be examined in detail with the astrology of the time and the meanings that Mehmet’s astrologers would likely have attributed to it.

The reader should ponder why Mehmet placed such a high level of trust in them. He was a strict ruler with no tolerance for failure. Early in the battle, he reportedly had one of his Admirals flogged 100 lashes in addition to stripping him of rank, property and wealth for failure in battle. Considering the constant disasters plaguing the Ottomans, why were the court astrologers not among the first to suffer the Sultans wrath?  After all, they played a key role in planning the campaign. There are no reports of any court astrologers punished in the siege. The only plausible explanation is that Mehmet had more faith in their judgement than any others and astrology underpinned his entire strategy from the start.

V. 15th Century Astrology

There is no easy way to simplify the next section for the reader who is unfamiliar with medieval astrology. It would take volumes to fully explain the types of astrology reports Mehmet would have been given, but I will do my best to concisely summarize the important ones for this scenario.

Electional Astrology: selecting the most favorable time to begin an important event. The goal is finding the optimal planetary alignments to support the success of the endeavor.

Astrological Magic: combines electional astrology and magic practices. The positions of planets and stars are carefully selected to harness the spiritual influences. Talismans are a common practice, which are symbolic images created of the desired result at a precise astrological time. Images of the Sultan trampling the Christian altar or the city flying Ottoman flags would have been suitable for the siege.

I strongly suspect that in addition to the court astrologers choosing auspicious times for beginning the campaign via electional astrology, they also employed Astrological Magic with the eclipse as the key time for the final assault and had planned to do so from the beginning.

Astrological talismans were commonly used by other Islamic rulers in warfare (3) and Mehmet’s astrologers would have been familiar with the practice. Mehmet was of the Hanafi school of Islamic thought, widely known for his religious tolerance both before and after his victory. He was also a generous patron of many Sufi orders and had participated in Sufi rituals and practices. (11)

There are no sources to suggest that Mehmet personally was involved with or supported practices of astrological magic, but there is nothing to suggest his court astrologers couldn’t have been.  According to “Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4)”, Volume 1, numerous volumes of astral work were available in the palace. A large amount of occult literature attributed to Hermes Trismegistus was in the library, along with Rutbat al-hakim, a companion text to Picatrix as well as a copy of Dhikirat al-Iskander, or “Book of the Treasure of Alexander” which draws heavily on Hellenistic sources and is very similar to Picatrix (and possibly one of its older sources), containing complicated astrological instructions for timing the creation of an image. Dozens of other now-obscure texts containing instructions for the creation of astrological talismans or using astrology to harness the astral influences for one’s own benefit lined the walls of the palace library.

The practice of creating images could have been a problem for Mehmet, however, a widely used alternative in the Islamic world was to substitute an image for Arabic letters, especially with number squares and Quranic verses. For example, the Hadith that prophesied the eventual fall of Constantinople would have been a viable choice for an astrological talisman similar to those found in the famous book of medieval Sufi magic Shams al Ma’arif al Kubra (Book of the Sun of Gnosis) by Ahmed al-Buni, widely known in the Islamic world at the time and remaining infamous today. In all of the books mentioned, most recommend burying them near or in the target area, with specifics depending on individual factors of the talisman’s properties. A few people emplacing small pieces of metal in the midst of this siege would have likely gone unseen and brushed aside as unimportant in the worst case.

The key astrology texts of the time period show the eclipse as vitally important for multiple purposes. Mehmet’s actions in the days before and after the eclipse strongly indicate this. I will examine the timing of Mehmet’s actions using Al-Kindi’s The Forty Chapters, a foundational text of astrology at the time, as well as “On Talismans” by Thabit Ibn Qurra and Ghayat al-Hakim or “The Goal of the Wise” (known as Picatrix in the western world), both famous works of ancient astrological magic compiled by medieval Arab astrologers.

Now I will examine the eclipse for its use as an astrological talisman.

The Lunar Eclipse of 22 May 1453 7:00 PM

Figure 1: Astrological chart for the partial lunar eclipse witnessed in the siege of Constantinople (*)

The moment of the eclipse itself meets all of the criteria Ibn Qurra states as optimal for creating images to bring destruction to a city in chapter two (5).  Although Ibn Qurra recommends in this chapter that the founding moment of the city be used for the talisman’s creation, in chapter one he provides an alternative method. The alternative is to choose a rising zodiac sign that symbolically corresponds to the intended target of the talisman, such as Pisces (the Fish) to affect a body of water, fish, etc.

In the case of the lunar eclipse, the rising sign is Sagittarius, which is human and bestial, the top half of the centaur archer symbolizing both humans as well as weapons. The lunar eclipse, where the moon is “destroyed” occurring in the early degrees of the sign would symbolize the harmful astral influences destroying humans using weapons.

The remaining planetary aspects perfectly embody the all the baneful aspects in Ibn Qurra’s text, as well as Picatrix. According to the latter, eclipses are among the worst afflictions and Mars occupying the eight house of death in Cancer, a water sign, will “cause blood to flow swiftly”. (6) Furthermore, the Lot of Fortune is on the descendant, a critical misfortune recognized since the Greek and Roman astrologers of late antiquity, the system of Lots growing to their most influential among the Arabs. This, in effect, causes all the Byzantine’s luck to fully oppose them. In section eight, after the conclusion, the full instructions of Ibn Qurra are provided for the more curious reader.

Lending some circumstantial evidence to the Ottomans’ use of astrological magic is the timing of the surrender terms. Mehmet had relatively generous terms delivered to Constantine exactly one day before the eclipse. According to Al Kindi,(7) one should never begin to initiate a battle while the moon is corrupted. He called a temporary ceasefire on 22 May, the day of the eclipse, to allow the Byzantines to communicate with their allies. Even though Mehmet was the invader and aggressor, if Constantine rejected the peace terms during this period, he was the technically the initiator of the next battle for astrological timing purposes, under far more fortunate skies for Mehmet.

(*) The chart in Figure 1 is an approximation and captures the moment the moon first begins to appear on the horizon using the Regiomontanus house system. If different house systems are used or the exact timing varies for an hour, before or after, the chart will still fit all of the criteria cited for creating the talismans. It is worth noting that any house assignment system of the time, including Whole Sign Houses, would produce mostly identical predictions for all the important events.

The Final Assault 30 May 1453 12:20 AM

Figure 2: Astrological chart of the approximate time (12:20 AM) of Mehmet’s final assault based on historical sources (**)

The loud war music began rousing the Ottoman troops at nightfall on the Day of Mars, 29 May, and continued until the final assault began shortly after midnight (30 May by modern timekeeping).  Figure 2 is the auspicious moment that Mehmet’s astrologers assured him would set in motion an event that would see him achieve what no other had done before for a thousand years. Mehmet led his elite Janissaries into battle on horseback.

Al Kindi provides the optimal astrological conditions for initiating battle in Chapter 11, “On War” as well as their expected outcomes. The results closely match Al-Kindi’s writings, in many cases to a remarkably specific degree. I will summarize the overall chart for the sake of brevity with the real-world results in bold for the ease of the reader.

In Appendix 1, I will provide direct quotes from Al-Kindi on each aspect of the chart as well as the outcome for the more curious readers. Even the most ardent skeptic should be at least intrigued by the correlations of the predictions with actual outcomes.

First House and Moon:

The first things that many who are familiar with traditional astrology will notice was the moon rising in the first house (representing Mehmet’s forces) and squaring the sun (Constantine). The square, representing conflict, perfectly embodies the coming battle. While the moon was not especially strong by itself, the sun was much weaker in comparison.

Mehmet prevailed and made the city his new capital of Istanbul.

Sun, King, Lot of Fortune and IC

The sun was conjoined with the South Node, the feared Tail of the Dragon with a malefic and vampiric nature in 16 Gemini, a cadent house. The sun represented the king in the astrology of the time.  Although not shown in this chart, the Lot of Death was located in 13 Gemini with the Lot of Fortune, both of which were of enormous significance to medieval Islamic astrologers. Both were in the Imum Coeli (IC), representing the underworld and the grave as well as the conclusion of the matter itself. Planets conjoined with a Lot analogous to itself increases its powers for that effect, such as Jupiter with the Lot of Money. In this case, the king was with the Lot of Death, weakened by the south node, in the grave.  Constantine was in one of the worst possible places here.

Emperor Constantine XI died in the battle and his remains were never recovered.

 10th House

Jupiter was in the first house, dignified by triplicity and extending its benefits to Mehmet’s forces. It is also worth mentioning that not only was Jupiter the Greater Fortune, it was the lord of the moon (Mehmet), and also lord of the 10th house, which is associated with sovereignty and career aspirations. It was a very important factor to consider in an astrological chart for a king, as it represented their public image, authority, and power.

Sultan Mehmet II is still known as one of history’s great military conquerors and is directly attributed with ushering in the Ottoman Empire’s golden age.

7th, 11th and 12th Houses

The Byzantine defenders as a whole were represented by the seventh house ruled by Virgo and Mercury, and is occupied by retrograde Saturn in exaltation, an especially severe affliction by the Greater Malefic. The Mars partile overcoming Saturn resulted in catastrophic bloodshed (6).  Mercury was corrupted by sharing its sign with bloody Mars and its next aspect was a square to retrograde Saturn, which represented not only the Byzantines destroyed but also harm coming from the eleventh and twelfth houses. The eleventh house signified Byzantine allies and trade. The twelfth house signified secret enemies, hidden problems, bad luck and harm by witchcraft.

Of the approximately 7,000 defenders, the vast majority died. Over 30,000 Byzantines were taken as slaves. 

Until the end, the Byzantines held out hope that their longtime Venetian allies and other European supporters would send naval forces to counteract the Ottomans and they never came. Later, when the Pope called on an outraged Europe to rally Christian forces for a crusade against the new Muslim enemy, fewer than ten ships arrived in response to the Pope’s call to arms.

Of the Venetian and Genoese mercenaries who comprised the most effective portion of the Byzantine defense, many deserted after their expert commander Giovanni Giustiniani fled due to an arrow wound in the attack. He was the single most important person in the defense forces and the sight of Giustiniani fleeing after an Ottoman flag was seen flying in a captured tower was devastating. Sources widely agree that the Byzantine forces almost immediately stopped fighting and attempted to flee the city. This is significant because the chaos of close quarter, urban combat in the city streets could have further decimated the Ottoman forces.

The invincible wall proved to hold one weakness: Saint Romanus Gate. The day the final assault began, the Ottomans concentrated their artillery here and an irreparable breach was finally created, finally allowing the Ottoman troops an entry point into the city. This was the turning point the Byzantines could no longer defend.

It should be noted that in his final attack, Mehmet had launched at least two human wave assaults on the city, some sources claiming as many as ten, and all failed. Casualties were catastrophic. Regardless, the only ground unit Mehmet had left fully intact was his elite Janissary Corps, and he launched his final attack with them.  Eyewitness accounts of the time widely report that Mehmet joined the attack himself, riding on horseback. This was the very attack that coincided with the wall finally breaking and Ottoman troops successfully entering the city. It could not be more evident that Mehmet had total faith in his plan succeeding, as he put his own life at risk unnecessarily by joining the Janissaries in the attack.

(**) All sources agree that the attack began “just after midnight”, with the latest estimate approximately 1 AM. The same conditions apply as the chart in Figure 1 for variations up to one hour. It is worth noting that any house assignment system of the time, including Whole Sign Houses, would produce almost identical predictions.

VI. Conclusion

Mehmet finally achieved the dream of the Ottomans, as well as dozens of infamous conquerors before him at the age of 21. He next conquered large parts of the Balkans, made Istanbul one of the most thriving cities in the world and the Ottoman Empire was soon one of the most prosperous in the world, retaining its status for nearly another five centuries. He even went on to defeat Vlad Dracul, the infamous ruler whose bloody memory would inspire Bram Stoker’s timeless horror novel “Dracula” centuries later.

There are no other conclusions to be drawn in regard to Mehmet’s strategy except that he placed the most faith in his court astrologers over any other advisors. I will reiterate that before his final assault one week after the eclipse, he had no logical reason to believe it would work. All his technological advances and unparalleled maneuvers had failed him. Even worse, on the day immediately after the eclipse two Turkish officers were captured and tortured until all of the secret tunnels were revealed and quickly destroyed. His humungous Basilica cannon had been failing catastrophically from overuse and he had no assurances of it working reliably.

The walls of Constantinople that had defeated all before him still stood; the psychological effect of that should be considered. The Byzantines had inflicted disproportionate casualties on his forces, had delivered vicious surprises at every turn and there was every reason to believe there were many more surprises inside, provided that his troops even breached the wall through, quite literally, pure luck.  Mehmet appears to have gambled all on the good fortune promised by the stars and he succeeded, with an omen around the city’s cathedral seemingly promising victory mere days beforehand.

The longstanding dream of Ottomans on the throne of Constantinople make it impossible to not think that for generations, court astrologers had been meticulously planning for this window of time for decades, if not centuries. By the astrological texts of their time, many referenced already, they could not have chosen a more fortunate time for the attack.  The official position of court astrologer (munajjim) was established by Mehmet’s father Murad II, and Mehmet was known to consult them often, and likely educated by them in many subjects. Under Mehmet’s immediate successor Beyazid II, their positions increased dramatically in both number and influence. (8)

Adding further weight to astrology, and particularly astrological magic having gained enormous respect among Ottoman royalty is his great-grandson Mehmet IV, who ruled less than a century later (1648-1687), was known for his interest in the occult. There are historical accounts that he owned an astrological talisman to bring him success in battle and protection. It was made of gold, with various astrological symbols and inscriptions engraved on it, and that he treasured it throughout his life. (9)

None of this is to suggest that the court astrologers were the only important factor. The Byzantine Empire was at its weakest militarily. Mehmet was a strategic and tactical genius, and his leadership was critical especially in the final days. The centuries-old Hadith vaguely prophesying the armies of Islam one day conquering Contantinople doubtlessly played a critical role for the Ottoman troops’ morale, their bravery in the face of unthinkable casualties motivated by a deep purpose and sense of destiny. Mehmet’s advanced military hardware and tactics were revolutionary for the time, and were ultimately enough to achieve the impossible, though just barely in the nick of time.

In the end, astrology probably played the most decisive factor.

Appendix 1: Al-Kindi’s 11th Chapter “On War”

The following may be confusing and of less interest in readers not familiar with medieval or Renaissance-era astrology. In summary, the astrological observations made by Al-Kindi in Chapter 11 strongly aligns with the outcomes of the siege of Constantinople. Mehmet waited for the moon to be free from afflictions before continuing his offensive efforts and launched his final attack while the moon rose in the east, which his astrologers would have told him would directly contribute to his victory. The lord of the second and eighth, Venus and Mars respectively, also seem to have played a role, as the Ottoman victory was a crippling blow to Christendom and led to the proclamation of another Crusade that went largely ignored by European rulers.

The death of Emperor Constantine XI, which was likely a result of the planetary configurations at the time, also seems to align with Al-Kindi’s observations. Additionally, the aftermath of the Ottoman victory, including the plundering of the city, the capture and enslavement of its inhabitants, and the establishment of Istanbul as the Ottoman capital, seems to be reflected in Al-Kindi’s observations regarding the lord of the fourth house conveying bloodshed after the victory, but ultimately bringing prosperity and good health after all is accomplished.

I have provided a chart again for ease of reference. Each aspect of the chart that has a corresponding passage in Al-Kindi’s Chapter 11 is provided, along with the real-world outcome according to widely acknowledged, reputable historical sources.

Above: The moment Mehmet launched his victorious final assault.

In Chapter 11.6, “Initiating the War”, S406b-407a, Al-Kindi states, “Furthermore, I warn the king to the utmost degree, lest he should ever go into war with the Moon made fortunate. But one must observe that with her being corrupted, he should not flee. But he who begins the encounters of war with the moon being corrupted, should refuse the war. But he should advance and be about to fight with the Moon being made safe…”

Key Aspects: The lunar eclipse is among the most corrupting astrological afflictions.

Outcome: Mehmet offered surrender terms to Constantine the day before the eclipse and largely ceased his offensive efforts for an additional six days afterwards until the moon was free from all further afflictions.

Chapter 11:6: Election: Initiating the War S400.  “That one of the warriors who commences the beginnings of the war by night, being stronger than the one who went out by day, is crowned with the victory.  And we call the “beginnings of the war” the hour at which he heads to the path against the enemy (once all things are arranged, a call with the clamor of trumpet and clarion (horn), and the battle lines are arranged). For even though the lord of the seventh and the Ascendant may appear to be equal in virtue, the one who goes out by day is conquered and confused, but he who does so by night is confirmed as the victor.”

Key Aspects: The moon rises in the ascendant at night.

Outcome: Mehmet launched the final attack while the moon rose in the east.  According to Roger Crowley’s 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West, on the night of the attack, Ottomans blasted horns for hours to rouse the fighters until the moment the attack commenced.

S402. “The lord of the second and of the eighth will declare what side people will follow. For the one of them in a pivot or its own house or sovereignty or being eastern from the Sun…that one will keep for himself the company of the aforesaid powerful people (nobility and ruling classes), the final triumph and glory of the war, and the parade and advantage.”

Key Aspects: Lord of the second, Venus, and eighth, Mars, tightly apply to sextile. Venus is both eastern of the sun and in its rulership, while Mars is western of the sun and in its fall.

Outcome: The Islamic success was a crippling blow to all of Christendom and Pope Nicholas V proclaimed an immediate Crusade to oust the Muslim invaders. European rulers flatly refused to participate and the Pope was only able to muster a meager 10 ships. His successor, Pope Pius II, also called for another Crusade but was similarly ignored.  Some prominent Catholic clergy even publicly stated that friendly relations with Mehmet II would benefit Europe.

S403: “…the Moon comes to be noted to the greatest extent. For, she being made fortunate, is very advantageous to the one who commences the beginnings of the war…”

Key Aspects: The moon is unafflicted and strong, rising on the ascendant which is the most powerful of the angles. Its sign and house ruler, Jupiter (the planet of good fortune and kingdoms), is strong in the first house.

Outcome: Mehmet II became the first to conquer the city and made it his new capitol Istanbul. He was widely regarded as a good ruler during and after his life.

11.5 Victory S396. Moreover, if the lord of the seventh is cadent (that is, remote), even scorched or in the pivot of Mars or……in his assembly, it kills the enemy prince.

Key Aspects: The seventh lord, Mercury, is squaring lord of the first Jupiter.  Mercury is peregrine in Jupiter’s exaltation and received by him. Mercury is also in the assembly of Mars, both in the sign of Cancer and Mercury in both triplicity and term of Mars.

Outcome:  The Emperor Constantine XI died, presumably in battle. His remains were never identified.

S406a. “Likewise, the lord of the fourth or of the Moon being corrupted by Mars and from a pivot (angle), pollutes the end of the affair with death, once victory is had. Moreover, the lord of the end (fourth house), conveys health and prosperity after the business of war is accomplished.”

Key Aspects: Lord of the fourth, Mercury, in the angular house, is in assembly with Mars and its next aspect is a square to retrograde Saturn. Although Mercury is in Cancer with Mars, Gemini (Mercury’s domicile) is the fourth house. In this situation, the planet conveys bloodshed after the victory while also health and prosperity after all is accomplished.

Outcome: Mehmet granted his soldiers three days to plunder the city as he had promised before the war as was the custom of the time. According to the historian Philip Mansel, thousands were murdered and the rape of women and children was rampant, as was theft. Most of the city’s inhabitants (between 30 to 50 thousand) were captured and sold into slavery. Mehmet personally knocked over and trampled the altar of the Hagia Sophia, ordering it to be converted into a mosque.

Trade soon began to flourish and Mehmet immediately began to consolidate control over his territories as well as establish a strong central government. The city became the new Ottoman capitol of Istanbul and a golden age followed. The Ottomans now controlled all trade between Europe and the Far East. Prosperity led to large investments in the arts and sciences.

Appendix 2:  Talismans of Thabit Ibn Qurra

Above: The infamous lunar eclipse of 22 May 1453

“You should act according to this example when you wish to destroy a certain city or region. Make an image under the ascendant of that city, and make unfortunate the lord of the house of its life, that is, of its ascendant, and make the lord of the house of its death unfortunate and make unfortunate the lord of the ascendant, and the moon and the lord of the Moon’s house and the lord of the house of the lord of the ascendant, and you should impede the tenth house and its lord in any way you can. Bury the image in the middle of the region or in a house and you will behold miracles.”    (Chapter 2, Version 1) (5)

“When you wish to work with an image of some kind, you should know that our philosophers have handed down in their legacy seven images which they used for every purpose, and by which utility is acquired and impediments expelled….. If you desire to do this, begin the work with Scorpio rising, and make the image out of copper, tin, lead, silver, or gold, as you wish. Engrave in it the nsame of the rising sign and its lord, and the lord of the hour of the day in which you do this, and the name of the moon, and let the moon be in Scorpio.  Make the ascendant as unfortunate as you can, and also make unfortunate the lord of the ascendant, placing it in the house of death if you can do so……..You can make a similar image of any of the world’s noxious animals that you wish to expel, and you should begin this under an ascendant of the same nature as the animal you wish to expel.”  (Chapter 1, Version 1) (5)

Sources Cited

1. “The Siege and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453: Historiography, Topography, and Military Studies” by Marios Philippides and Walter K. Hanak (p. 109)

2. In “Mehmet the Conqueror and His Time” by Franz Babinger. (p. 143)

3. “Mobilizing Magic” Occultism in Central Asia and the Continuity of High Persianate Culture under Russian Rule” by Matthew Melvin-Koushki and James Pickettt, in Studia Islamica 111 (2016) 231-284

4. The Forty Chapters, translated by Benjamin Dykes. (Chapter 11)

5. “Astral High Magic: De Imaginibus of Thabit Ibn Qurra” by Christopher Warnock and John Michael Greer (2011) (Chapter 1 & 2)

6. “Picatrix: Liber Reubus Edition” by Christopher Warnock and John Michael Greer (2011) (pg 126)

7.  The Forty Chapters, translated by Benjamin Dykes. Chapter 11.6, “Initiating the War”, 406b-407a, “Furthermore, I warn the king to the utmost degree, lest he should ever go into war with the Moon made fortunate. But one must observe that with her being corrupted, he should not flee. But he who begins the encounters of war with the moon being corrupted, should refuse the war. But he should advance and be about to fight with the Moon being made safe…”

(8) “The Astrology of the Ottoman Empire” by Baris Ilhan, C.A. NCGR (2007) pg. 22

(9) “The Ottoman Empire and the World Around it” by Suraiya Faroqhi, p. 148

⦁ “Astrology and Magic in the Ottoman Empire” by D. Fairchild Ruggles, in Astrology and Cosmology in the World’s Religions, edited by Nicholas Campion and Steve Englehart (New York: New York University Press, 2012), p. 243.

⦁ “Astrology in the Ottoman Era” by Sevim Tekeli, in From Byzantion to Istanbul: 8000 Years of a Capital, edited by Ekrem Akurgal (Istanbul: Turkish Historical Society, 1999), pp. 480-481.

(10) Richard Natkiel 1988, obtained from Humanities 54: The Urban Imagination taught by Julie Buckler, Samuel Hazzard Cross Professor of Slavic and Comparative Literatures, at Harvard University. “The Fall of Constantinople”

(11) Ahmmet T. Karamustafa. “Sufism: The Formative Period.” Edinburgh University Press, 2007

Further Reading

1.  “The Fall of Constantinople: 1453” by Steven Runciman – This is a classic and highly-regarded work that provides a detailed and vivid account of the siege and the events leading up to it. Runciman’s writing is both informative and engaging, making this book a must-read for anyone interested in the history of the Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Empire.

2.  “1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West” by Roger Crowley – This is another well-regarded work that provides a comprehensive and gripping account of the siege, drawing on a wide range of sources to provide a detailed and nuanced portrayal of the conflict. Crowley’s writing is accessible and engaging, making this book an excellent choice for both scholars and general readers.

3.  “The Siege of Constantinople: Seven Hundred Years On” edited by Marios Philippides and Walter K. Hanak – This is a collection of essays by leading scholars that offers a multidisciplinary and wide-ranging examination of the siege and its historical significance. The essays cover a range of topics, from the military tactics used by the Ottomans to the cultural and religious implications of the conquest.

4.  “The Conquest of Constantinople” by Franz Babinger – This is a classic work that provides a detailed and scholarly account of the siege, drawing on a wealth of primary sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced portrayal of the conflict. Babinger’s writing is dense and academic, but this book is an essential reference for anyone studying the history of the Ottoman Empire.